As we know, all chemical reactions are affected by temperature, and a battery relies on chemical reaction to generate power. One can easily infer that temperature does affect power of a battery. The optimum functioning of a battery is at room temperature. A slight deviation in temperature can cause changes in capacity and service life.
Batteries are integral to powering countless devices in our daily lives, from smartphones to electric vehicles. However, temperature fluctuations can significantly influence their performance and longevity. This essay explores the effects of temperature on battery capacity and service life, highlighting the importance of temperature management in optimizing battery performance.
Temperature and Battery Capacity
Temperature plays a crucial role in determining the capacity of a battery, which refers to the amount of energy it can store and deliver. Generally, as temperature decreases, the capacity of most batteries also decreases. This phenomenon is particularly evident in lithium-ion batteries, which find wide usage in various electronic devices.
When temperature is elevated, battery capacity increases due to a decrease in internal resistance and an increase in chemical metabolism. However, if such conditions persist for a long duration, the service life of the battery shortens. At elevated temperature of 50°C, the performance of the battery increases by 12%.
Figure 1. Battery capacity & battery life compared at different temperature
On the contrary, lower temperature increases internal resistance and reduces the rate of chemical metabolism, and thus results in a decrease in the capacity of the battery. If a battery’s capacity is 10o% at 27°C , it lowers significantly to 50 percent, once temperature is 18°C. At freezing point, the capacity of the battery reduces to 20 percent. At -20°C, most batteries stop functioning. Now you might have understood why your car’s battery dies on a cold morning. At freezing point , aqueous electrolyte containing batteries such as lead-acid, stop functioning due to freezing of the electrolyte itself. In the case of a lithium-ion battery, lithium plating (accumulation) on the anode occurs at extreme low temperatures, resulting in permanent reduction of the capacity.
Temperature and Battery Service Life
Temperature also affects service life of a battery. Battery performs best at room temperatures. If temperature is increased to 30°C for a long duration of time, service life of the battery reduces by 20 percent. While at 45°C, the life-cycle is reduced considerably to 50 percent.
Like humans, batteries function best at room temperature. Warming a dying battery in a mobile phone or flashlight in our jeans might provide additional runtime due to improved electrochemical reaction. This is likely also the reason why manufacturers prefer to specify batteries at a toasty 27°C (80°F). Operating a battery at elevated temperatures improves performance but prolonged exposure will shorten life.
As all drivers in cold countries know, a warm battery cranks the car engine better than a cold one. Cold temperature increases the internal resistance and lowers the capacity. A battery that provides 100 percent capacity at 27°C (80°F) will typically deliver only 50 percent at –18°C (0°F). The momentary capacity-decrease differs with battery chemistry.
Related Battery Products
The dry solid polymer battery requires a temperature of 60–100°C (140–212°F) to promote ion flow and become conductive. This type of battery has found a niche market for stationary power applications in hot climates where heat serves as a catalyst rather than a disadvantage. Built-in heating elements keep the battery operational at all times. High battery cost and safety concerns have limited the application of this system. The more common lithium-polymer uses gelled electrolyte to enhance conductivity.
All batteries achieve optimum service life if used at 20°C (68°F) or slightly below. If, for example, a battery operates at 30°C (86°F) instead of a more moderate lower room temperature, the cycle life is reduced by 20 percent. At 40°C (104°F), the loss jumps to a whopping 40 percent, and if charged and discharged at 45°C (113°F), the cycle life is only half of what can be expected if used at 20°C (68°F).
The performance of all batteries drops drastically at low temperatures; however, the elevated internal resistance will cause some warming effect by efficiency loss caused by voltage drop when applying a load current. At –20°C (–4°F) most batteries are at about 50 percent performance level. Although NiCd can go down to –40°C (–40°F), the permissible discharge is only 0.2C (5-hour rate). Specialty Li-ion can operate to a temperature of –40°C but only at a reduced discharge rate; charging at this temperature is out of the question. With lead acid there is the danger of the electrolyte freezing, which can crack the enclosure. Lead acid freezes quicker with a low charge when the specific gravity is more like water than when fully charged.
In multi-cell battery packs, matched cells with identical capacities are crucial, especially during discharge at low temperatures and under heavy loads. Failure to maintain balanced cells can lead to cell reversal, causing permanent damage and reduced performance. Over-discharging at low temperatures and heavy loads is a common cause of battery failure, particularly in cordless power tools.
Electric vehicle (EV) drivers should be aware that cold temperatures can significantly reduce the driving range between charges. This reduction is not only due to heating the cabin but also because cold temperatures slow down the battery’s electrochemical reactions, thereby reducing its capacity.
Conclusion
The temperature exerts a profound influence on battery capacity and service life. Whether too hot or too cold, extreme temperature conditions can compromise the performance and longevity of batteries, impacting the reliability and usability of devices they power. To mitigate these effects, proper temperature management strategies, such as thermal insulation, active cooling, and temperature-controlled charging, are essential. By optimizing temperature conditions, manufacturers and users can maximize the efficiency and lifespan of batteries, ensuring reliable power delivery in diverse environmental conditions.
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